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Charles Darwin's 1859 Origin of Species described evolution as a process of natural selection: those members of a species whoseWundt, and later Edward Titchener in the United States, used the technique of introspection, in which highly trained subjects carefully describe each aspect of their conscious sensory experiences. This approach was called structuralism, because it focused on describing each of the separate elements that makeIn the United States, William James was influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. James's approach, functionalism, emphasized the study of what consciousness does--how it functions to help people adapt to their environments. The focus wasJohn Watson, also in the United States, argued that psychologists shouldHis behaviorism approach held that learning is the most important cause of behavior. Behaviorism was developed further by B. F. Skinner's functional analysis of behavior, which focused on how rewards and punishments shape behavior. A biological approach presumes that biological factors (e.g., genes, hormones, brain systems) affect behavior and mental events. An evolutionary approach emphasizes how behavior and mental phenomena emerge as generation-to-generationThe psychodynamic approach, founded by Freud, sees constant unconscious conflicts within a person asThe behavioral approach, from the behaviorism of Watson and Skinner, focuses entirely on observableThe cognitive-behavioral or social-cognitive approach studies the ways we learn thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs and how these affect our observable behaviors. Cognitive science is a multidisciplinary field focusing on the study of intelligentThey no longer presume that all humans are essentially the sameAll humans probably are alike in certain behavioral and mental abilities. For example, all newborn humans have reflexes that slowly recede over severalIn individualist cultures people focus on and value personal goals rather than group goals.
In collectivist cultures people often tend to think of themselves as part of family or work groups ratherMost countries are multicultural, hosting many subcultures within their borders. What am I being asked to believe or accept. Is there evidence available to support the claim. Can that evidence be interpreted another way. What evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives. What conclusions are most reasonable? Questions about behavior and mental processes are phrased in terms of a hypothesis --a specific, testable statement. Research is done to gather evidence to supportFor example, an operational definitionThen the quality of the evidence is evaluated. The theory forms the basisSubjects may act differently if they know that they are being observed. Observations can be distorted or incomplete if observers are not well trained or are biased about what they expect to see. Observation alone cannot lead to conclusions about cause and effect. Case studies are useful for new, complex, or rare phenomena, such as thoseCase studies must be interpreted cautiously because they may not representThe validity of survey data depends partly on the wording of survey questions. A survey's validity also depends on who is surveyed and who chooses to respond. People may be reluctant to admit undesirable or embarrassing things aboutWhile all other variables are held constant, one variable is directly manipulatedThe variable that the researcherControl groups provide baselines against which to compare the performance of the experimental group.Dr. Shapiro's hypothesis was EMDR treatment causes significant reduction in anxiety. The dependent variable, significant reduction in anxiety, was defined as a certain amount of reduction in clients' self-reported discomfort. Confirmation bias occurs when people look only for evidence that supports their hypothesis.
The random assignment of participants to different groups will reduce the impact of random variablesParticipants' expectations about the experiment can affect results. For example, if participants expect a treatment to help them, they may showThis is called the placebo effect. To directly avoid such effects, a control group may receive a placebo, a treatment that appears to be the same as the experimental treatment, butExperimenter bias occurs when researchers inadvertently encourage certain results. To guardTruly random samples (an ideal seldom obtained) allowA biased sample occurs if everyone does NOT have an equal chance of being chosen. A representative sample is a random sample from a population that is typical or representativeDescriptive statistics summarize a set of data, whereas inferential statistics use mathematical procedures to make judgments and conclusions about what data mean.Variables differ in how strongly and in what direction they are related. The absolute value of a correlation indicates the correlation strength. A plus sign indicates a positive correlation; a minus sign indicates a negative correlation. Correlations do not describe cause and effect; they show that a relationship of some kind exists between variables, but not why a relationship exists. Human subjects must be able to make informed decisions about their voluntaryStudies show that animals used in psychological research are seldom subjected toHigh standards forEarly behavioral genetics research examined the effects of selective breedingResearch on behavior genetics in humans must be interpreted with even greaterLegal, moral, and ethical considerations prohibit manipulations such as selectiveIdentical twins' genes are the same whereas nonidentical twins have genes that are no more similar than those of other siblings. Comparing themBe careful about interpreting from such data to make decisions about a particular person's behavioral and mental abilities.