Status: AVAILABLE |
In order to read or download 1998 honda passport service manual ebook, you need to create a FREE account.
Download Now! |
eBook includes PDF, ePub and Kindle version
| ✔ Register a free 1 month Trial Account. |
| ✔ Download as many books as you like (Personal use) |
| ✔ Cancel the membership at any time if not satisfied. |
| ✔ Join Over 80000 Happy Readers |
When is it used? Be able to interpret the results of a test cross. Authored by: Wendy Riggs. Provided by: College of the Redwoods. Project: Kaleidoscope. License: CC BY: Attribution. It looks like your browser needs updating. For the best experience on Quizlet, please update your browser. Learn More. A kind of cell division, which produces gametes containing half the number of chromosomes as a parent's body cell. What is the difference between haploid and diploid. Haploid (n): A cell that contains ONE set of each kind of chromosome. Diploid (2n): A cell that contains TWO of each kind of chromosome. Diploid vs. Haploid? If an organism produces a diploid cell with 32 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will be in the haploid cell? -16 If an organism produces a haploid cell with 50 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will be in the diploid cell? - 100 Gametes? Male Gamete: Sperm Female Gamete: Egg (Recall Meiosis Produces 4 haploid sex cells) What does Meiosis accomplish? 1. Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of every chromosome (diploid) and makes cells wit ha single copy of every chromosome (haploid) 2. meiosis Scrambles the specific forms of each gene that each sex cell (egg or sperm) receives through crossing over and independent assortment. Gregor Mendel 1. The Father of Genetics 2. Crossed Pea Plants 3. Studied Traits and Heredity what is on the side of a punnet square. Law of segregation Every individual has two alleles of each gene and when gametes are produced, each gamete receives one of these alleles During fertilization, these gametes randomly pair to produce four combinations of alleles Telophase 1 and 11 2 Haploid Daughter Cells Each with half the number as original (23) Opposite of prophase occurs, cytoplasm splits. END RESULT: four haploid (n), non-replicated, non-identical daughter cells. The current custom error settings for this application prevent the details of the application error from being viewed remotely (for security reasons).
http://algitama.com/admin/fckeditor/editor/filemanager/connectors/php/dpr-1005-manual.xml
It could, however, be viewed by browsers running on the local server machine. Study with Hours ?? Summer College Program Bookmarks Subjects and resources that you bookmark will appear here. Essential Vocabulary Phenotype - the physical appearance of an organism, or the actual depiction of a trait (think: phenotype, PHYSICAL). Ex. red, purple, white, sparkly, spiky. Genotype - the alleles that make up an individual trait (think: genotype, GENES). Ex. AA, Aa, aa OR homozygous dominant, heterozygous, homozygous recessive. Allele - a version of a gene. Usually an allele can be dominant or recessive. For Mendelian genetics, all genes have two alleles.The organism will have the recessive phenotype. Dominant - a trait that produces enough protein or product in order to overtake another trait. Recessive - a trait that does not produce enough protein or product and is overpowered by dominant traits. Homozygous Dominant - an organism that has two dominant alleles. The organism will have the dominant phenotype. Heterozygous - an organism that has one dominant and one recessive allele. Punnett Squares Note that only the homozygous recessive genotype leads to the recessive phenotype. All of the vocabulary above is used frequently and should be memorized and thoroughly understood. Because of the rules that Mendel created, the frequency of inheritance can be determined when two individuals are crossed. This can be shown with a Punnett Square. Image courtesy of WikiMedia Commons. As shown in the Punnett square above, when a heterozygous (Yy) and homozygous recessive (yy) individual is crossed, there is a 50 chance that the offspring will show the dominant (yellow) phenotype and a 50 chance that the offspring will show the recessive (green) phenotype. This can be done for any trait that has a simple inheritance pattern. By knowing the genotype of the parents, the various possible offspring can be calculated with their frequencies.
http://comfortinnbarrie.com/phpsites/vertical_living/uploads/dpq3212-manual.xml
These traits, referred to as Non-Mendelian traits, are explained next. Watch AP Bio live streams here. Resources: Was this guide helpful. Yes No ???? Are you ready for the AP Bio exam. Talk to a trained counselor for free. It's 100 anonymous. Genes are specific sequences of nucleotides that code for particular proteins. Through the processes of meiosis and sexual reproduction, genes are transmitted from one generation to the next. Mendel performed his experiments in the 1860s and 1870s, but the scientific community did not accept his work until early in the twentieth century. Because the principles established by Mendel form the basis for genetics, the science is often referred to as Mendelian genetics. It is also called classical genetics to distinguish it from another branch of biology known as molecular genetics (see Chapter 10). Modern scientists accept that genes are composed of segments of DNA molecules that control discrete hereditary characteristics. Diploid cells have a double set of chromosomes, one from each parent. For example, human cells have a double set of chromosomes consisting of 23 pairs, or a total of 46 chromosomes. In a diploid cell, there are two genes for each characteristic. In preparation for sexual reproduction, the diploid number of chromosomes is reduced to a haploid number. That is, diploid cells are reduced to cells that have a single set of chromosomes. These haploid cells are gametes, or sex cells, and they are formed through meiosis (see Chapter 8). When gametes come together in sexual reproduction, the diploid condition is reestablished. The different forms of a gene are called alleles. In humans, for instance, there are two alleles for earlobe construction. One allele is for earlobes that are attached, while the other allele is for earlobes that hang free. The type of earlobe a person has is determined by the alleles inherited from the parents. The genome for a human cell consists of about 20,000 genes.
The gene composition of a living organism is its genotype. For a person’s earlobe shape, the genotype may consist of two alleles for attached earlobes, or two alleles for free earlobes, or one allele for attached earlobes and one allele for free earlobes. If a person has attached earlobes, the phenotype is “attached earlobes.” If the person has free earlobes, the phenotype is “free earlobes.” Even though three genotypes for earlobe shape are possible, only two phenotypes (attached earlobes and free earlobes) are possible. An organism’s condition is said to be homozygous when two identical alleles are present for a particular characteristic. In contrast, the condition is said to be heterozygous when two different alleles are present for a particular characteristic. In a homozygous individual, the alleles express themselves. In a heterozygous individual, the alleles may interact with one another, and in many cases, only one allele is expressed. The “overshadowed” allele is the recessive allele. In humans, the allele for free earlobes is the dominant allele. If this allele is present with the allele for attached earlobes, the allele for free earlobes expresses itself, and the phenotype of the individual is “free earlobes.” Dominant alleles always express themselves, while recessive alleles express themselves only when two recessive alleles exist together in an individual. Thus, a person having free earlobes can have one dominant allele or two dominant alleles, while a person having attached earlobes must have two recessive alleles. The Chemical Foundation of Life 4. Introduction 5. Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks 6. Water 7. Carbon III. Biological Macromolecules 8. Introduction 9. Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules 10. Carbohydrates 11. Lipids 12. Proteins 13. Nucleic Acids IV. Cell Structure 14. Introduction 15. Studying Cells 16. Prokaryotic Cells 17. Eukaryotic Cells 18. The Endomembrane System and Proteins 19. The Cytoskeleton 20.
https://gpwestlondon.com/images/conteo-plaquetario-manual.pdf
Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities V. Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes 21. Introduction 22. Components and Structure 23. Passive Transport 24. Active Transport 25. Bulk Transport VI. Metabolism 26. Introduction 27. Energy and Metabolism 28. Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy 29. The Laws of Thermodynamics 30. ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate 31. Enzymes VII. Cellular Respiration 32. Introduction 33. Energy in Living Systems 34. Glycolysis 35. Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle 36. Oxidative Phosphorylation 37. Metabolism without Oxygen 38. Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways 39. Regulation of Cellular Respiration VIII. Photosynthesis 40. Introduction 41. Overview of Photosynthesis 42. The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis 43. Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules IX. Cell Communication 44. Introduction 45. Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors 46. Propagation of the Signal 47. Response to the Signal 48. Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms X. Cell Reproduction 49. Introduction 50. Cell Division 51. The Cell Cycle 52. Control of the Cell Cycle 53. Cancer and the Cell Cycle 54. Prokaryotic Cell Division XI. Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 55. Introduction 56. The Process of Meiosis 57. Sexual Reproduction XII. Mendel's Experiments and Heredity 58. Introduction 59. Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability 60. Characteristics and Traits 61. Laws of Inheritance XIII. Modern Understandings of Inheritance 62. Introduction 63. Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage 64. Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders XIV. DNA Structure and Function 65. Introduction 66. Historical Basis of Modern Understanding 67. DNA Structure and Sequencing 68. Basics of DNA Replication 69. DNA Replication in Prokaryotes 70. DNA Replication in Eukaryotes 71. DNA Repair XV. Genes and Proteins 72. Introduction 73. The Genetic Code 74. Prokaryotic Transcription 75. Eukaryotic Transcription 76.
RNA Processing in Eukaryotes 77. Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis XVI. Gene Expression 78. Introduction 79. Regulation of Gene Expression 80. Prokaryotic Gene Regulation 81. Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation 82. Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation 83. Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation 84. Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation 85. Cancer and Gene Regulation XVII. Biotechnology and Genomics 86. Introduction 87. Biotechnology 88. Mapping Genomes 89. Whole-Genome Sequencing 90. Applying Genomics 91. Genomics and Proteomics XVIII. Evolution and the Origin of Species 92. Introduction 93. Understanding Evolution 94. Formation of New Species 95. Reconnection and Speciation Rates XIX. The Evolution of Populations 96. Introduction 97. Population Evolution 98. Population Genetics 99. Adaptive Evolution XX. Phylogenies and the History of Life 100. Introduction 101. Organizing Life on Earth 102. Determining Evolutionary Relationships 103. Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree XXI. Viruses 104. Introduction 105. Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification 106. Virus Infections and Hosts 107. Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections 108. Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids XXII. Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea 109. Introduction 110. Prokaryotic Diversity 111. Structure of Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea 112. Prokaryotic Metabolism 113. Bacterial Diseases in Humans 114. Beneficial Prokaryotes XXIII. Protists 115. Introduction 116. Eukaryotic Origins 117. Characteristics of Protists 118. Groups of Protists 119. Ecology of Protists XXIV. Fungi 120. Introduction 121. Characteristics of Fungi 122. Classifications of Fungi 123. Ecology of Fungi 124. Fungal Parasites and Pathogens 125. Importance of Fungi in Human Life XXV. Seedless Plants 126. Introduction 127. Early Plant Life 128. Green Algae: Precursors of Land Plants 129. Bryophytes 130. Seedless Vascular Plants XXVI. Seed Plants 131. Introduction 132.
Evolution of Seed Plants 133. Gymnosperms 134. Angiosperms 135. The Role of Seed Plants XXVII. Introduction to Animal Diversity 136. Introduction 137. Features of the Animal Kingdom 138. Features Used to Classify Animals 139. Animal Phylogeny 140. The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom XXVIII. Invertebrates 141. Introduction 142. Phylum Porifera 143. Phylum Cnidaria 144. Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Flatworms, Rotifers, and Nemerteans 145. Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Molluscs and Annelids 146. Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Nematodes and Tardigrades 147. Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Arthropods 148. Superphylum Deuterostomia XXIX. Vertebrates 149. Introduction 150. Chordates 151. Fishes 152. Amphibians 153. Reptiles 154. Birds 155. Mammals 156. The Evolution of Primates XXX. Plant Form and Physiology 157. Introduction 158. The Plant Body 159. Stems 160. Roots 161. Leaves 162. Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants 163. Plant Sensory Systems and Responses XXXI. Soil and Plant Nutrition 164. Introduction 165. Nutritional Requirements of Plants 166. The Soil 167. Nutritional Adaptations of Plants XXXII. Plant Reproduction 168. Introduction 169. Reproductive Development and Structure 170. Pollination and Fertilization 171. Asexual Reproduction XXXIII. The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function 172. Introduction 173. Animal Form and Function 174. Animal Primary Tissues 175. Homeostasis XXXIV. Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System 176. Introduction 177. Digestive Systems 178. Nutrition and Energy Production 179. Digestive System Processes 180. Digestive System Regulation XXXV. The Nervous System 181. Introduction 182. Neurons and Glial Cells 183. How Neurons Communicate 184. The Central Nervous System 185. The Peripheral Nervous System 186. Nervous System Disorders XXXVI. Sensory Systems 187. Introduction 188. Sensory Processes 189. Somatosensation 190. Taste and Smell 191. Hearing and Vestibular Sensation 192. Vision XXXVII. The Endocrine System 193. Introduction 194.
Types of Hormones 195. How Hormones Work 196. Regulation of Body Processes 197. Regulation of Hormone Production 198. Endocrine Glands XXXVIII. The Musculoskeletal System 199. Introduction 200. Types of Skeletal Systems 201. Bone 202. Joints and Skeletal Movement 203. Muscle Contraction and Locomotion XXXIX. The Respiratory System 204. Introduction 205. Systems of Gas Exchange 206. Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces 207. Breathing 208. Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids XL. The Circulatory System 209. Introduction 210. Overview of the Circulatory System 211. Components of the Blood 212. Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels 213. Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation XLI. Osmotic Regulation and Excretion 214. Introduction 215. Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance 216. The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs 217. Excretion Systems 218. Nitrogenous Wastes 219. Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions XLII. The Immune System 220. Introduction 221. Innate Immune Response 222. Adaptive Immune Response 223. Antibodies 224. Disruptions in the Immune System XLIII. Animal Reproduction and Development 225. Introduction 226. Reproduction Methods 227. Fertilization 228. Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis 229. Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction 230. Human Pregnancy and Birth 231. Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development 232. Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation XLIV. Ecology and the Biosphere 233. Introduction 234. The Scope of Ecology 235. Biogeography 236. Terrestrial Biomes 237. Aquatic Biomes 238. Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change XLV. Population and Community Ecology 239. Introduction 240. Population Demography 241. Life Histories and Natural Selection 242. Environmental Limits to Population Growth 243. Population Dynamics and Regulation 244. Human Population Growth 245. Community Ecology 246. Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior XLVI. Ecosystems 247. Introduction 248. Ecology of Ecosystems 249.
Energy Flow through Ecosystems 250. Biogeochemical Cycles XLVII. Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 251. Introduction 252. The Biodiversity Crisis 253. The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life 254. Threats to Biodiversity 255. Preserving Biodiversity The Periodic Table of Elements Geological Time Measurements and the Metric System Nevertheless, these laws summarize the basics of classical genetics. After he crossed peas with contrasting traits and found that the recessive trait resurfaced in the F 2 generation, Mendel deduced that hereditary factors must be inherited as discrete units. This finding contradicted the belief at that time that parental traits were blended in the offspring. Rather than both alleles contributing to a phenotype, the dominant allele will be expressed exclusively. The recessive allele will remain “latent” but will be transmitted to offspring by the same manner in which the dominant allele is transmitted. The recessive trait will only be expressed by offspring that have two copies of this allele ( (Figure) ), and these offspring will breed true when self-crossed. Instead, several different patterns of inheritance have been found to exist. This law states that paired unit factors (genes) must segregate equally into gametes such that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either factor. For the F 2 generation of a monohybrid cross, the following three possible combinations of genotypes could result: homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or homozygous recessive. Because heterozygotes could arise from two different pathways (receiving one dominant and one recessive allele from either parent), and because heterozygotes and homozygous dominant individuals are phenotypically identical, the law supports Mendel’s observed 3:1 phenotypic ratio. The equal segregation of alleles is the reason we can apply the Punnett square to accurately predict the offspring of parents with known genotypes.
The physical basis of Mendel’s law of segregation is the first division of meiosis, in which the homologous chromosomes with their different versions of each gene are segregated into daughter nuclei. The role of the meiotic segregation of chromosomes in sexual reproduction was not understood by the scientific community during Mendel’s lifetime. The independent assortment of genes can be illustrated by the dihybrid cross, a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different traits for two characteristics. Consider the characteristics of seed color and seed texture for two pea plants, one that has green, wrinkled seeds ( yyrr ) and another that has yellow, round seeds ( YYRR ). Therefore, the F 1 generation of offspring all are YyRr ( (Figure) ). What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes for a cross between PpYY and ppYy pea plants. How many squares do you need to do a Punnett square analysis of this cross? The law of independent assortment states that a gamete into which an r allele sorted would be equally likely to contain either a Y allele or a y allele. Thus, there are four equally likely gametes that can be formed when the YyRr heterozygote is self-crossed, as follows: YR, Yr, yR, and yr. Arranging these gametes along the top and left of a 4 ? 4 Punnett square ( (Figure) ) gives us 16 equally likely genotypic combinations. These are the offspring ratios we would expect, assuming we performed the crosses with a large enough sample size. Ignoring seed color and considering only seed texture in the above dihybrid cross, we would expect that three quarters of the F 2 generation offspring would be round, and one quarter would be wrinkled. Similarly, isolating only seed color, we would assume that three quarters of the F 2 offspring would be yellow and one quarter would be green. The sorting of alleles for texture and color are independent events, so we can apply the product rule.
Round, green and wrinkled, yellow offspring can also be calculated using the product rule, as each of these genotypes includes one dominant and one recessive phenotype.Each gamete can contain any combination of paternal and maternal chromosomes (and therefore the genes on them) because the orientation of tetrads on the metaphase plane is random. For instance, examining a cross involving four genes would require a 16 ? 16 grid containing 256 boxes. It would be extremely cumbersome to manually enter each genotype. For more complex crosses, the forked-line and probability methods are preferred. We then multiply the values along each forked path to obtain the F 2 offspring probabilities. Note that this process is a diagrammatic version of the product rule. The values along each forked pathway can be multiplied because each gene assorts independently. For a trihybrid cross, the F 2 phenotypic ratio is 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1. Here, the probability for color in the F 2 generation occupies the top row (3 yellow:1 green). The probability for shape occupies the second row (3 round: 1 wrinkled), and the probability for height occupies the third row (3 tall:1 dwarf). The probability for each possible combination of traits is calculated by multiplying the probability for each individual trait. Thus, the probability of F 2 offspring having yellow, round, and tall traits is 3 ? 3 ? 3, or 27. Both methods make use of the product rule and consider the alleles for each gene separately. Earlier, we examined the phenotypic proportions for a trihybrid cross using the forked-line method; now we will use the probability method to examine the genotypic proportions for a cross with even more genes. To fully demonstrate the power of the probability method, however, we can consider specific genetic calculations.
For instance, for a tetrahybrid cross between individuals that are heterozygotes for all four genes, and in which all four genes are sorting independently and in a dominant and recessive pattern, what proportion of the offspring will be expected to be homozygous recessive for all four alleles. Rather than writing out every possible genotype, we can use the probability method.We can answer this question using phenotypic proportions, but let’s do it the hard way—using genotypic proportions. The question asks for the proportion of offspring that are 1) homozygous dominant at A or heterozygous at A, and 2) homozygous at B or heterozygous at B, and so on. Noting the “or” and “and” in each circumstance makes clear where to apply the sum and product rules.Given a multihybrid cross that obeys independent assortment and follows a dominant and recessive pattern, several generalized rules exist; you can use these rules to check your results as you work through genetics calculations ( (Figure) ). To apply these rules, first you must determine n, the number of heterozygous gene pairs (the number of genes segregating two alleles each). For example, a cross between AaBb and AaBb heterozygotes has an n of 2. In contrast, a cross between AABb and AABb has an n of 1 because A is not heterozygous. Genes that are located on separate non-homologous chromosomes will always sort independently. However, each chromosome contains hundreds or thousands of genes, organized linearly on chromosomes like beads on a string. The segregation of alleles into gametes can be influenced by linkage, in which genes that are located physically close to each other on the same chromosome are more likely to be inherited as a pair. However, because of the process of recombination, or “crossover,” it is possible for two genes on the same chromosome to behave independently, or as if they are not linked. To understand this, let’s consider the biological basis of gene linkage and recombination.
The alleles may differ on homologous chromosome pairs, but the genes to which they correspond do not. In preparation for the first division of meiosis, homologous chromosomes replicate and synapse. Like genes on the homologs align with each other. At this stage, segments of homologous chromosomes exchange linear segments of genetic material ( (Figure) ).